Theories and Concepts - Self-esteem in an Adventure Setting

Self-esteem (SE) has received attention from numerous authors and researchers, however a universal definition cannot be agreed upon.  Here are the developing definition of SE:

1)      Jacobson (1964) defines SE as ‘...expressive of the harmony or discrepancy between the self representations and the wishful concept of the self’ (pg. 34).

2)       ‘Self-esteem is our ability to value ourselves…..self-esteem is our the overall opinion we have about ourselves’ (Lothian Psychological Interventions Network,  2009)

3)      However, Campbell (1990) adds to SE definition by stating how individuals may visualise themselves as closer to their ideal self in some situations more than others; presenting the idea of state SE (how a person feels about themselves at a particular moment in time) and an overall more stable level of trait SE (how a person generally feels about themselves).

State and Trait SE is shown in hierarchy, with global (trait) SE at the top with domains and sub-domains, such as physical, social and academic self-worth below (Fox, 1998). It has been suggested that successes or failures in one domain may not necessarily effect an individual’s global SE (McAuley, Blissmer, Katula, Duncan and Mihalko, 2000; Fox, 1998). If an individual experiences failures within a domain i.e. academic performance their global SE may not be affected if they do not believe academic performance to be important. However, the same individual who experiences’ failure in a sporting (physical) context, may experience an effect on their global SE, if they perceive sporting performance to be important (Marsh, 1986).

As authors and researchers are unclear on a universal definition it is clear that SE is more complex and multidimensional than previously believed. Therefore as facilitators we cannot just provide a positive experience and hope that the participant’s SE increases.  Positive experiences are needed but the participant also needs suitable feedback to aid them place worth on an experience, that will hopefully help to increase their global SE. Clifford (1979) suggests that initial failures can increase motivation to succeed and may not necessarily reduce SE. Participants with high or low self-esteem need different forms of feedback;

1)      High SE individuals benefit from high levels of positive feedback

2)      However Low SE individuals require feedback that is reinforcing of the positive aspects they believe themselves to have. If the feedback is overly positive, they will think that the comments are a miss-interpretation of their performance and not take the positive feedback on board. They need to experience lots of successful experiences in a variety of situations to increase their global SE.

Hattie, Marsh, Neil and Richards (1997) meta-analysis of SE research has identified adventure programmes as successful in increasing SE, which was most significant when programmes were specifically targeted at SE as opposed to a general personal development approach. Facilitators therefore need to decide upon what they would like to try and improve in their group and focus on that one element for it to be most successful. When aiming to improve SE facilitators should be aware of its multidimensional nature and how to best help individuals with varying level of SE.

References

Campbell, J.D. (1990) Self Esteem and clarity of the Self-concept. Journal of personality and social psychology. 59, p539-549.

Fox, K.R. (1998) Advances in the measurement of the physical self. In Duda, J.L. (Ed) Advances in sport and exercise psychology measurement. Fitness information technology.

Hattie, J., Marsh, H., Neil, J., and Richards, G. (1997) Adventure Education and Outward Bound: Out-of-class experiences that make a lasting difference. Review of Educational Research. 67, 43-87.

Jacobson, E. (1964) The Self and The Object World. Intl Universities Pr Inc.

Lothian Psychological Interventions Network  (2009) A Self Help Guide to Self Esteem.  Booklet

Marsh, H.W. (1986) Verbal and math self-concepts: An internal/external frame of reference model.  American Educational Research Journal, 23, p129-149.

McAuley, E., Blissmer, B., Katula, J., Duncan, T.E. and Mihalko, S.L. (2000) Physical activity, Self-Esteem, and Self-Efficacy relationships in older adults: A randomized controlled trail. Analysis of Behavioural Medicine. 22, 131-139.